A Beginner’s Guide to Ethical and Sustainable Fashion

Why is it so hard to cut through the greenwashing and overstated claims of the sustainable-clothing landscape? To start, the development, production and distribution of most garments are complex endeavors involving a global web of interconnected farmers, factories and traders, all supplying parts and processes to a huge number of brands and customers. Along that chain, there are many types of human and environmental impacts to consider. Some are challenging to measure, and some even “trade off” against one another—for instance, recycled materials are good for resource use but are potentially more likely to increase microfiber shedding. Many standards, product innovations, materials and brands claim to have a lower impact—and many more companies share very little information. All of this makes it challenging for a consumer to make decisions while shopping.

This guide will help you understand the stages of clothing inception and production. It will let you better piece together clues for a given garment or company to figure out whether sustainability was a priority at different stages of the life cycle, in terms of both the environment and human rights. You’ll learn key terms that are important for evaluating whether claims have evidence behind them. The guide will also point you to other resources that can help you cut through the noise and get clear guidance, including rating and information sites such as Good On You or reports such as the United Nations Environment Program road map.

Above all, the two simplest ways to participate in sustainable fashion are to buy less and to ask questions. Many people in developed countries significantly overconsume apparel. As clothing production has doubled, the number of times each item is worn or used has dropped by approximately 40 percent. Using, repairing or adapting what you already have; borrowing items; buying vintage or secondhand; or leasing from sustainable rental companies can all provide a low-impact alternative to purchasing new products. If you do want to buy new, ask the right questions: look for evidence to support claims, don’t be fooled by terms such as “natural,” and engage with companies directly to request more information and more sustainable processes and products. These actions alone, if done at scale, would have the power to change the fashion industry.

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WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT CLOTHING PRODUCTION

Here we break down the dominant linear pathway of garments, punctuated with details for each stage that impact sustainability from both a human-rights and an environmental point of view. For the most part, policymakers, corporations and designers are in the position to make the most substantive changes to each step—including by bending production flow to create a circular pathway. That said, consumers can use this knowledge to make informed decisions in support of sustainable practices.

Design and Concept • Material and construction-technique decisions—made by designers and fashion brands—influence the impact of production and the garment’s lifespan. As fashion scholar Peggy Blum writes, “Design is key in the shift to a circular fashion model, which requires greater focus on doing things ‘right from the start.’”

Raw Material Production • There are three primary fiber-source categories: natural fibers, natural polymers and synthetic polymers. For natural fibers, “production” refers to cultivation or breeding. In the case of polymers, it refers to cellulose or oil extraction.

Material Processing and Sourcing • Raw materials must be processed or extracted before fiber preparation. This involves, for example, cotton baling and sheep shearing, as well as the transport of the materials. For synthetics, it involves the chemical production of specific polymers from the source ingredients to make, for instance, polyester chips.

Fiber Preparation • Fibers are aligned and elongated. In the case of cotton, a series of specialized machines pick fibers off bales, then clean and straighten them into long and loose untwisted strips. Synthetic polymers are extruded to create fibers.

Yarn Preparation (Spinning) • Spinning is the torsion process by which fibers are twisted into yarn. Short fibers (cotton and wool) are called staple fibers. Long fibers (silk and many synthetics) are called filaments; they generally require less processing at this stage. Different spinning methods yield different characteristics.

Weaving, Knitting, Bonding • Yarn is then manipulated into fabric. Woven fabrics are made of perpendicular and stable interlocking yarns. Knitted fabrics are made of stretchable, interlocking loops. Bonded fabrics are technical textiles in which fibers and/or fabrics are bound by adhesives, heat or pressure.

Bleaching, Dyeing, Finishing • Textiles are washed and prepared for dye using water and chemical baths followed by heating or steaming. (Some of these treatments may also be used during yarn production.) Next the fabric may be printed or dyed, then fixed with dye stabilizers, flame retardants, antimicrobials, and other treatments.

Assembly and Quality Control • Assembly includes fabric cutting, sewing, trimming and ironing of the finished garment. Finishes, such as bleaching or sandblasting for faded denim, may also be applied.

Distribution and Retail • This stage includes logistics, transportation from blockembly location to retail storage, packaging and marketing, store operating impacts, and/or direct shipping from warehouses to consumers. (Transportation from retail stores to consumers—such as direct shipping—is not reflected in the data below.)

Use • Use includes consumer wear and care. It covers maintenance—cleaning, drying, ironing and storing—as well as repair. The garment may cycle over into being used again by another consumer via a direct secondhand donation or via thrift and consignment shops, or it may be used by multiple customers in a rental-based model.

Collection and Sorting • Per a 2020 U.N. report, at most 1% of textiles is recycled back into clothing. Another 12% is used in products such as cleaning cloths, insulation material and mattress stuffing. There is a significant global trade of used garments for recycling, often ending up in locations without processing capacity.

Landfilling, Waste to Energy • In the dominant linear garment pathway, most garments end up in a landfill or an incinerator plant after one or more uses. In a circular pathway, the textile would avoid this stage by being used for much longer or by more customers, upcycled into a new garment, or broken back down to the fiber level and spun anew.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Breaking down environmental impacts by stage allows for targeted reduction efforts. The values shown here, as published by the U.N. Environment Program, were calculated using a global baseline year of 2016. At that time, apparel was estimated to comprise 30% natural fibers and 70% human-made fibers. (Some categories, including water use, vary widely depending on fiber type and region.) Energy-intensive stages emerge as hotspots. Dyeing and finishing require large quantities of water and electricity for heating, as do washing and drying by individuals at the use stage. Variation resulting from regional laundry habits suggests that this is a pain point that consumers can influence directly.

HUMAN IMPACT

Garment manufacturing is a significant source of jobs for people around the world—particularly for women in low-income countries. It’s also an industry rife with poor working conditions. The relative risk values shown here, published by the U.N. in 2020, were calculated for a hypothetical low-cost garment made from a cotton and polyester blend. Fiber production emerged as the stage that carries the highest levels of social risk. Further, “the high social risks of fiber production are overwhelmingly due to natural fiber production … [The values] are even more striking bearing in mind that these results are for a low-cost garment made up of 70% synthetic fibers and only 30% natural fibers.”

TIPS FOR CONSUMERS

Simply buying less stuff is the most impactful way to make more sustainable fashion choices and push back against the relentless consumerism perpetuated by the fast-fashion industry. But that doesn’t mean never adding something new to your closet. Whether you are looking for a warm coat after moving to a cold climate, restocking your sock drawer, or sourcing an outfit from a vintage store for a special occasion, ask yourself whether the item truly fits you, functions in your wardrobe and will last. Evaluate the quality and seek information about production processes and sustainability policies. Brands are sensitive to customer demand, so use your power to advocate for change.

Design and Concept • Look for specifics on the clothing brand’s website about its sustainable-design ethos, including details about how it designs for garment longevity, durability and recyclability and for how it reduces waste and production im-pacts. Bonus points for brands that design for circular business models or directly provide repair, returns or recycling.

Fiber Production • In many cases, organic or recycled materials have a smaller environmental impact than conventionally grown plant materials and newly created synthetics. But recycled products can have high social and labor risks. Get familiar with the coverage of different standards such as Better Cotton, Organic or Responsible Wool Standard. ITC and Textile Exchange both have rating systems for different schemes and branded materials. Often there isn’t one ideal solution. If you focus on social issues, then choose Fairtrade; if you value veganism, then synthetic leather substitutes may be your priority even if they have large climate or chemical impacts. Try to find the “best” available version of the fiber category. Rather than moving away from cotton altogether, for instance, choose highly sustainable or recycled cotton in place of conventional. Is there any evidence to support raw material claims, such as a Life Cycle Assessment? Terms like “green” and “natural” do not have a specific meaning. Try to substantiate words like “recycled” by searching for the actual percentage of recycled material.

Yarn Preparation (Spinning) • Spinning is one of many energy-intensive activities with the supply chain. Look for brands with a Scope 3 Science-Based climate target. If a company has an identified spinner list, it is also an indication it has put significant resources into its traceability and data-collection systems.

Weaving, Knitting, Bonding • Bonded fabrics are less sustainable than woven or knitted ones but can be useful for specific technical purposes, such as water-proofing. They often contain PFAS, and as of 2025, clothing with PFAS is banned from sale in New York State and California. Waxed cotton canvas and boiled wool also provide water resistance.

Bleaching, Dyeing, Finishing • Certifications such as GOTS or Oeko-Tex provide controls on the chemicals used in dyeing and finishing. Look for brands implementing water-management plans and applying chemical and wastewater controls such as those from ZDHC, or creating funding programs to help manufacturers and producers invest in renewable energy.

Assembly and Quality Control • Faded or treated jeans have particularly high worker-health impacts and should be avoided. Look for labor plans aligned with programs such as ILO, Sedex or OECD. If this information is missing, ask the company questions on its social media—this puts pressure on companies for action and transparency.

Distribution and Retail • If you are buying products new, don’t create excessive transport impacts by purchasing and returning significant volumes of garments. Consider more circular options such as buying secondhand or vintage clothing or renting clothing for specific uses (look for sustainable solutions to the cleaning and transport of rented options).

Use • To increase a garment’s lifespan, follow the care instructions provided and repair damaged areas. Wash clothes less frequently and at lower temperatures or air-dry—which can reduce environmental impact. Avoid dry-cleaning. Microfiber filter products might also help reduce the impact of shedding from laundry.

End of Life • Textiles in good condition should be sold, swapped or donated to optimize their use. For an unwearable item, can you repurpose it at home as a rag or drop cloth? If not, check whether you can recycle it at the store where you bought it (such as H&M or Patagonia). Or use a direct recycling solution such as Retold or a local collection facility. Aim for ones that speak to how they sort and recycle fabrics and avoid those that are not transparent about where waste goes. You don’t want your clothes to become a burden on countries that receive high volumes of waste.